"O Come O Come Emmanuel
And ransom captive Israel
Who mourns in lowly exile here
Until the Son of God appears
Rejoice! Rejoice!
Emmanuel shall come to thee O Israel."
Have you ever thought about the theology that underlies this? What does it mean to talk about Israel in exile? What does it mean for these Israelite captives to be waiting for the appearance of Emmanuel?
Sunday, October 3, 2010
Dating the Book of Jubilees
One way to determine the earliest date when a writing, especially pseudopigraphical writings like Jubilees, could have been written is to do a little detective work in the writing and look for anachronistic references. This is simply looking for references that reflect events or details that are specific to a certain time and that which earlier references would have been impossible. For example, if a writing was made that made clear reference to the winning of the presidential election by Barak Obama, you would have a "no-earlier-than" date of 2008 since references to his winning the election would be near impossible before that time.
You can apply this technique to the Book of Jubilees to determine a likely range of dates for it's composition. In this first example, Jubilees recounts the events of Genesis 1-3 (with his own modifications of course). When he arrives at Adam and Eve's eating of the fruit and God's ensuing punishment, he retells the story of Adam sewing leaves to cover his and Eve's nakedness and he retells the part about God making a garment for them. At this point, Jubilees offers a new interesting detail:
Jubilees 3.30. And to Adam alone did He give (the wherewithal) to cover his shame, of all the beasts and cattle. 31. On this account, it is prescribed on the heavenly tables as touching all those who know the judgment of the law, that they should cover their shame, and should not uncover themselves as the Gentiles uncover themselves.
The mention here of Gentiles that uncover themselves is one of these anachronistic references. During the Second Temple period, and during the high priesthoods of Jason and Menelaus (very Greek names), Judea underwent a time of "Hellenization" (cf: Jos. Ant. 12.5). One of the things that Menelaus allowed was the building of a gymnasium in Jerusalem. Gymnasiums in the Greek world were not like gyms of today because in the Greek world, the sports were practiced completely naked. Hence, this particular reference in Jubilees seems to reflect the practices of the Greeks, probably specifically the gymnasium in Jerusalem that was built under Hellenized High Priests. The Jerusalem gymnasium was especially difficult for the Jewish population at the time as they were undergoing derision for Jewish particulars, of which circumcision was one. Josephus records how most tried to find ways to hide their circumcision when participating in the gymnasium (Ant. 12.5.1).
There are other details and pieces of data that indicate a much later composition for Jubilees. Consider for example that in the stories of the patriarchs in Jubilees there is no mention of flaws or faults on the part of the patriarchs and there is evidence of trying to smooth over difficult texts. Consider the binding of Isaac in Jubilees:
Jubilees 16.15. And it came to pass in the seventh week, in the first year thereof, in the first month in this jubilee, on the twelfth of this month, there were voices in heaven regarding Abraham, that he was faithful in all that He told him, and that he loved the Lord, and that in every affliction he was faithful. 16. prince Mastêmâ came and said before God, "Behold, Abraham loveth Isaac his son, and he delighteth in him above all things else; bid him offer him as a burnt-offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command, and Thou wilt know if he is faithful in everything wherein Thou dost try him."
Here, unlike Genesis, it's not God's idea to tell Abraham to sacrifice Isaac, it's Prince Mastema's idea in a manner very reminiscent of satan and God's encounter in the book of Job. It's fairly obvious that (1) someone didn't like the idea of God just commanding Abraham to sacrifice Isaac and (2) this someone was familiar with the book of Job.
Or consider when Jacob obtains the blessing of his father in Jubilees:
Jubilees 26:19. And he said: "Art thou my son Esau?" and he said: "I am thy son and he said, "Bring near to me that I may eat of that which thou hast caught, my son, that my soul may bless thee."
Here, Jacob simply says "I am thy son" whereas in Genesis he says, "I am thy son Esau". In Jubilees, Jacob isn't presented as a trickster that tricks his father into blessing him and so Isaac isn't presented as incompetent. Obviously, the author of Jubilees is a later writer who, being a devout descendant of the patriarchs, doesn't like the flaws of the patriarchs as they are presented in Genesis, so he fixes it.
Inserted into Jubilees 23:9-32 is a series of woe's the seem to distinctly reflect the situation and difficult circumstances surrounding the Maccabean Revolt and we find another anachronistic reference:
23:26. And in those days the children will begin to study the laws,
And to seek the commandments,
And to return to the path of righteousness.
Here, the author seems to be referring to his own sect who were practicing strict sabbath observance and following the proper calendar (a huge theme of the book). In the midst of the Hellenizing of the leadership and the ensuing Maccabean Revolt, the author considers himself and his own sect as those who are enlightened to the truth (an identical theme shows up in the Book of Enoch as well).
Another anachronizing tendency seems to be with the mention of the Book of Enoch (a second temple writing) itself:
Jubilees 4.17. And he was the first among men that are born on earth who learnt writing and knowledge and wisdom and who wrote down the signs of heaven according to the order of their months in a book, that men might know the seasons of the years according to the order of their separate months. 18. And he was the first to write a testimony, and he testified to the sons of men among the generations of the earth, and recounted the weeks of the jubilees, and made known to them the days of the years, and set in order the months and recounted the Sabbaths of the years as we made (them) known to him. 19. And what was and what will be he saw in a vision of his sleep, as it will happen to the children of men throughout their generations until the day of judgment; he saw and understood everything, and wrote his testimony, and placed the testimony on earth for all the children of men and for their generations.
Simply put, if the Book of Enoch is a second temple writing, and Jubilees mentions Enoch, then Jubilees can be no earlier than the Book of Enoch. This probably also indicates that the 364 day solar calendar of Jubilees is derived from the Book of Enoch, which further reflects a later Second Temple dating.
All in all, a useful way of determining the dating of the book of Jubilees is to look at anachronistic tendencies and find references that are tell-tale signs of a specific date.
You can apply this technique to the Book of Jubilees to determine a likely range of dates for it's composition. In this first example, Jubilees recounts the events of Genesis 1-3 (with his own modifications of course). When he arrives at Adam and Eve's eating of the fruit and God's ensuing punishment, he retells the story of Adam sewing leaves to cover his and Eve's nakedness and he retells the part about God making a garment for them. At this point, Jubilees offers a new interesting detail:
Jubilees 3.30. And to Adam alone did He give (the wherewithal) to cover his shame, of all the beasts and cattle. 31. On this account, it is prescribed on the heavenly tables as touching all those who know the judgment of the law, that they should cover their shame, and should not uncover themselves as the Gentiles uncover themselves.
The mention here of Gentiles that uncover themselves is one of these anachronistic references. During the Second Temple period, and during the high priesthoods of Jason and Menelaus (very Greek names), Judea underwent a time of "Hellenization" (cf: Jos. Ant. 12.5). One of the things that Menelaus allowed was the building of a gymnasium in Jerusalem. Gymnasiums in the Greek world were not like gyms of today because in the Greek world, the sports were practiced completely naked. Hence, this particular reference in Jubilees seems to reflect the practices of the Greeks, probably specifically the gymnasium in Jerusalem that was built under Hellenized High Priests. The Jerusalem gymnasium was especially difficult for the Jewish population at the time as they were undergoing derision for Jewish particulars, of which circumcision was one. Josephus records how most tried to find ways to hide their circumcision when participating in the gymnasium (Ant. 12.5.1).
There are other details and pieces of data that indicate a much later composition for Jubilees. Consider for example that in the stories of the patriarchs in Jubilees there is no mention of flaws or faults on the part of the patriarchs and there is evidence of trying to smooth over difficult texts. Consider the binding of Isaac in Jubilees:
Jubilees 16.15. And it came to pass in the seventh week, in the first year thereof, in the first month in this jubilee, on the twelfth of this month, there were voices in heaven regarding Abraham, that he was faithful in all that He told him, and that he loved the Lord, and that in every affliction he was faithful. 16. prince Mastêmâ came and said before God, "Behold, Abraham loveth Isaac his son, and he delighteth in him above all things else; bid him offer him as a burnt-offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command, and Thou wilt know if he is faithful in everything wherein Thou dost try him."
Here, unlike Genesis, it's not God's idea to tell Abraham to sacrifice Isaac, it's Prince Mastema's idea in a manner very reminiscent of satan and God's encounter in the book of Job. It's fairly obvious that (1) someone didn't like the idea of God just commanding Abraham to sacrifice Isaac and (2) this someone was familiar with the book of Job.
Or consider when Jacob obtains the blessing of his father in Jubilees:
Jubilees 26:19. And he said: "Art thou my son Esau?" and he said: "I am thy son and he said, "Bring near to me that I may eat of that which thou hast caught, my son, that my soul may bless thee."
Here, Jacob simply says "I am thy son" whereas in Genesis he says, "I am thy son Esau". In Jubilees, Jacob isn't presented as a trickster that tricks his father into blessing him and so Isaac isn't presented as incompetent. Obviously, the author of Jubilees is a later writer who, being a devout descendant of the patriarchs, doesn't like the flaws of the patriarchs as they are presented in Genesis, so he fixes it.
Inserted into Jubilees 23:9-32 is a series of woe's the seem to distinctly reflect the situation and difficult circumstances surrounding the Maccabean Revolt and we find another anachronistic reference:
23:26. And in those days the children will begin to study the laws,
And to seek the commandments,
And to return to the path of righteousness.
Here, the author seems to be referring to his own sect who were practicing strict sabbath observance and following the proper calendar (a huge theme of the book). In the midst of the Hellenizing of the leadership and the ensuing Maccabean Revolt, the author considers himself and his own sect as those who are enlightened to the truth (an identical theme shows up in the Book of Enoch as well).
Another anachronizing tendency seems to be with the mention of the Book of Enoch (a second temple writing) itself:
Jubilees 4.17. And he was the first among men that are born on earth who learnt writing and knowledge and wisdom and who wrote down the signs of heaven according to the order of their months in a book, that men might know the seasons of the years according to the order of their separate months. 18. And he was the first to write a testimony, and he testified to the sons of men among the generations of the earth, and recounted the weeks of the jubilees, and made known to them the days of the years, and set in order the months and recounted the Sabbaths of the years as we made (them) known to him. 19. And what was and what will be he saw in a vision of his sleep, as it will happen to the children of men throughout their generations until the day of judgment; he saw and understood everything, and wrote his testimony, and placed the testimony on earth for all the children of men and for their generations.
Simply put, if the Book of Enoch is a second temple writing, and Jubilees mentions Enoch, then Jubilees can be no earlier than the Book of Enoch. This probably also indicates that the 364 day solar calendar of Jubilees is derived from the Book of Enoch, which further reflects a later Second Temple dating.
All in all, a useful way of determining the dating of the book of Jubilees is to look at anachronistic tendencies and find references that are tell-tale signs of a specific date.
Friday, October 1, 2010
Dating The Book of Enoch
The consensus among scholarship is that the book of Enoch is Second Temple Jewish sectarian literature. How does someone arrive at such a view though? Here I am going to look at one way of dating the book of Enoch.
In chapters 85-90 we are given a series of dreams that Enoch supposedly has and passes on to his son Methuselah. The dreams that Enoch has here are fairly easy to correlate with historical events. Things are given enough detail to be able to tell from the passage what historical event is being referred to. For instance, 89:1-9 covers the biblical flood. 89:10-27 covers the period from the death of Noah to the Exodus.
89:23. But the wolves began to pursue those sheep till they reached a sea of water. 24. And that sea was divided, and the water stood on this side and on that before their face, and their Lord led them and placed Himself between them and the wolves. 25. And as those wolves did not yet see the sheep, they proceeded into the midst of that sea, and the wolves followed the sheep, and [those wolves] ran after them into that sea. 26. And when they saw the Lord of the sheep, they turned to flee before His face, but that sea gathered itself together, and became as it had been created, and the water swelled and rose till it covered those wolves. 27. And I saw till all the wolves who pursued those sheep perished and were drowned.
89:28-40 covers the period of wilderness wandering and giving of the Law at Sinai.
89:41-50 covers the time from the Judges to the building of the first temple.
89:51:67 covers the period from the splitting of the Davidic kingdom to the destruction of Jerusalem.
At this point, the "sheep" are blinded and they are given over to a series of wicked shepherds. We find reference to to building of the second temple (89:73) and the conquering of the Greek empire under Alexander the Great (89:74-75). In all, 35 [wicked] 'shepherds' lead God's people during this period. Then we are confronted with the period of Seleucid domination where another 23 [wicked] 'shepherds' rule God's people (90:2-5). So far 58 shepherds have ruled God's people since the return from Babylon. This is noteworthy, because Enoch only envisions 70 shepherds total ruling over God's people before the great judgment would occur (90:22).
At this point, the blindness of some of the sheep begins to be lifted (90:6). These sheep try to "wake-up"the other sheep which refuse to listen to their warnings (90:7). Here we are looking at a correlation between the last 12 shepherds and the Maccabean Revolt. At this point, the correlations between the dreams and historical events becomes very vague, esoteric, and frankly non-existent. The reason is due to when the author was writing. He lives around the time of the Maccabean Revolt; a time when he expects the last of the 70 shepherds to be ruling before the great judgment. The visionary experiences of "Enoch" correlate with historical events up the Maccabean Revolt very easily because it's actually prophecy ex eventu (after the fact) as it's very easy to recount events of one's own time of living. Things become vague and esoteric at the point just beyond the Maccabean Revolt in the visions because predicting the future with such accuracy is much more difficult for the author than recalling past events is and it's much more difficult than the familiarity of, and ease of writing about, one's own time. Had he known that the Romans would conquer Israel in 63BC or that the temple would be destroyed again in AD 70, he might have rethought or rewritten the book of Enoch.
Further, the point in the visions where the blindness of the sheep begins to be removed (90:6-7) probably indicates the time to where this Jewish sect traced it's origins. Their particular sect had the blinders removed and they tried to persuade the other 'sheep' of the "truth", but the other sheep were still blind and wouldn't listen. This might correspond to the time of the high priest Onias III who was murdered and replaced by a Hellenistic-influenced high priest (Jason).
This is one of the methods used to date the book of Enoch to the Second Temple period.
In chapters 85-90 we are given a series of dreams that Enoch supposedly has and passes on to his son Methuselah. The dreams that Enoch has here are fairly easy to correlate with historical events. Things are given enough detail to be able to tell from the passage what historical event is being referred to. For instance, 89:1-9 covers the biblical flood. 89:10-27 covers the period from the death of Noah to the Exodus.
89:23. But the wolves began to pursue those sheep till they reached a sea of water. 24. And that sea was divided, and the water stood on this side and on that before their face, and their Lord led them and placed Himself between them and the wolves. 25. And as those wolves did not yet see the sheep, they proceeded into the midst of that sea, and the wolves followed the sheep, and [those wolves] ran after them into that sea. 26. And when they saw the Lord of the sheep, they turned to flee before His face, but that sea gathered itself together, and became as it had been created, and the water swelled and rose till it covered those wolves. 27. And I saw till all the wolves who pursued those sheep perished and were drowned.
89:28-40 covers the period of wilderness wandering and giving of the Law at Sinai.
89:41-50 covers the time from the Judges to the building of the first temple.
89:51:67 covers the period from the splitting of the Davidic kingdom to the destruction of Jerusalem.
At this point, the "sheep" are blinded and they are given over to a series of wicked shepherds. We find reference to to building of the second temple (89:73) and the conquering of the Greek empire under Alexander the Great (89:74-75). In all, 35 [wicked] 'shepherds' lead God's people during this period. Then we are confronted with the period of Seleucid domination where another 23 [wicked] 'shepherds' rule God's people (90:2-5). So far 58 shepherds have ruled God's people since the return from Babylon. This is noteworthy, because Enoch only envisions 70 shepherds total ruling over God's people before the great judgment would occur (90:22).
At this point, the blindness of some of the sheep begins to be lifted (90:6). These sheep try to "wake-up"the other sheep which refuse to listen to their warnings (90:7). Here we are looking at a correlation between the last 12 shepherds and the Maccabean Revolt. At this point, the correlations between the dreams and historical events becomes very vague, esoteric, and frankly non-existent. The reason is due to when the author was writing. He lives around the time of the Maccabean Revolt; a time when he expects the last of the 70 shepherds to be ruling before the great judgment. The visionary experiences of "Enoch" correlate with historical events up the Maccabean Revolt very easily because it's actually prophecy ex eventu (after the fact) as it's very easy to recount events of one's own time of living. Things become vague and esoteric at the point just beyond the Maccabean Revolt in the visions because predicting the future with such accuracy is much more difficult for the author than recalling past events is and it's much more difficult than the familiarity of, and ease of writing about, one's own time. Had he known that the Romans would conquer Israel in 63BC or that the temple would be destroyed again in AD 70, he might have rethought or rewritten the book of Enoch.
Further, the point in the visions where the blindness of the sheep begins to be removed (90:6-7) probably indicates the time to where this Jewish sect traced it's origins. Their particular sect had the blinders removed and they tried to persuade the other 'sheep' of the "truth", but the other sheep were still blind and wouldn't listen. This might correspond to the time of the high priest Onias III who was murdered and replaced by a Hellenistic-influenced high priest (Jason).
This is one of the methods used to date the book of Enoch to the Second Temple period.
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